Industry WIKI

Foreign exchange reserves (also called forex reserves or FX reserves) are cash and other reserve assets such as gold and silver held by a central bank or other monetary authority that are primarily available to balance payments of the country, influence the foreign exchange rate of its currency, and to maintain confidence in financial markets. Reserves are held in one or more reserve cur

The four pillars policy is an Australian Government policy to maintain the separation of the four largest banks in Australia by rejecting any merger or acquisition between the four major banks. The policy, rather than formal regulation, first articulated in 1990, reflects the competitive concerns of more concentration as well as the broad political unpopularity of further bank mergers. A

Free of charge, at no charge, at no cost, complimentary, gratis, and the like are phrases or terms used to indicate that a thing for which a monetary cost is normally assessed is being provided without any payment being required.

A free price system or free price mechanism (informally called the price system or the price mechanism) is a mechanism of resource allocation that relies upon prices set by the interchange of supply and demand. The resulting price signals communicated between producers and consumers determine the production and distribution of resources. Therefore the free price system rations supplies,

The Friedman rule is a monetary policy rule proposed by Milton Friedman. Friedman advocated monetary policy that would result in the nominal interest rate being at or very near zero. His rationale was that the opportunity cost of holding money faced by private agents should equal the social cost of creating additional fiat money. Assuming that the marginal cost of creating additional mon

Fundamental analysis, in accounting and finance, is the analysis of a business's financial statements (usually to analyze the business's assets, liabilities, and earnings); health; competitors and markets. It also considers the overall state of the economy and factors including interest rates, production, earnings, employment, GDP, housing, manufacturing and management. There are two bas

The gender pension gap (also known as the sex pension gap) is the percentage difference in pension income between women and men. It is often calculated as the difference between the average man's pension and the average woman's pension, expressed as a percentage of the man's. The gap averages 26% across OECD countries.

Gruen (previously known as The Gruen Transfer) is an Australian television program focusing on advertising, which debuted on the ABC on 28 May 2008. The program is hosted by Wil Anderson and produced by Andrew Denton's production company, Zapruder's Other Films, now part of CJZ. Anderson is accompanied by a panel of advertising industry experts including Russel Howcroft (originally of Ge

The use of historical money in Tibet started in ancient times, when Tibet had no coined currency of its own. Bartering was common, gold was a medium of exchange, and shell money and stone beads were used for very small purchases. A few coins from other countries were also occasionally in use.

Hoarding is by definition the action of storing or hiding treasure. Word root is derived from french, german, and english.

Horizontal integration is the process of a company increasing production of goods or services at the same level of the value chain, in the same industry. A company may do this via internal expansion or through mergers and acquisitions.

The Housing Finance and Development Centre of Finland (abbr. ARA, Finnish: Asumisen rahoitus- ja kehittämiskeskus) was a Finnish government agency within the jurisdiction of the Finnish Ministry of the Environment, responsible for implementing state housing policy.

Hovis Ltd is a British company that produces flour, yeast

Huw David Dixon (/hju: devəd dɪksən/; born 1958) is a British economist. He has been a professor at Cardiff Business School since 2006, having previously been Head of Economics at the University of York (2003–2006) after being a professor of economics there (1992–2003), and the University of Swansea (1991–1992), a Reader at Essex University (1987–1991) and a lecturer at Birkbeck College

Hypercompetition, a term first coined in business strategy by Richard D'Aveni, describes a dynamic competitive world in which no action or advantage can be sustained for long. Hypercompetition is a key feature of the new global digital economy. Not only is there more competition, there is also tougher and smarter competition. It is a state in which the rate of change in the competitive r

Industrial design (ID) is the process of identifying problems and creating products, systems, and experiences that make everyday activities more efficient or meaningful. It is the creative act of determining and defining a product's form and features, which takes place in advance of the manufacture or production of the product. Industrial manufacture consists of predetermined, standardiz

Influencer marketing (also known as influence marketing) is a form of social media marketing involving endorsements and product placement from influencers, individuals and organizations who have a purported expert level of knowledge or social influence in their field. Influencers are people (or something) with the power to affect the buying habits or quantifiable actions of others by up

An insurance cycle, also known as an underwriting cycle, is a term describing the tendency of the insurance industry to swing between profitable and unprofitable periods over time. The concept is most closely associated with property insurance and casualty insurance, where premiums, underwriting profits and the availability of cover are observed to rise and fall in a cyclical pattern rat

The International Business Companies Act, 1984 was a statute of the British Virgin Islands which permitted the incorporation of International Business Companies (IBCs) within the Territory. The Act played in a huge role in the economic and financial development of the Territory in the 1990s. It has been called "the most important piece of legislation in BVI history since the emancipati

In economics, intertemporal choice is the study of the relative value people assign to two or more payoffs at different points in time. This relationship is usually simplified to today and some future date. Intertemporal choice was introduced by Canadian economist John Rae in 1834 in the "Sociological Theory of Capital". Later, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk in 1889 and Irving Fisher in 1930 elab

The Investment Canada Act (ICA; French: Loi sur Investissement Canada, LIC) is a Canadian federal law governing foreign direct investment in Canada. The ICA was one of the first acts of Brian Mulroney's newly elected Progressive Conservative government, receiving royal assent on 20 June 1985. It has been amended at various times, including recently through Bill C-34, An Act to amend th

ION Group, also known as Ion and Ion Investment Group, is a financial data and software company headquartered in London. The company has expanded rapidly through a series of acquisitions. The Financial Times has compared it to Bloomberg L.P., although it has a low profile.

Israel's Anti-Concentration Law, formally “A Law for Promotion of Competition and Reduction of Concentration”, is a law passed in December 2013 that seeks to reduce the size of existing large Israeli business groups organized in a pyramidal holding structures, separate financial holdings from non-financial holdings and prevent new pyramids from being formed.

Junk fees (also known as hidden fees) are fees designed to confuse or deceive consumers by exploiting behavioral biases. They tend to come in the form of mandatory back-end fees and hidden add-on charges, which obscure the true cost of goods and services. Junk fees stand in contrast to "all-in", "upfront" pricing where consumers are shown a true single price, inclusive of fees, at the st

In economics, the law of one price (LOOP) states that in the absence of trade frictions (such as transport costs and tariffs), and under conditions of free competition and price flexibility (where no individual sellers or buyers have power to manipulate prices and prices can freely adjust), identical goods sold at different locations should be sold for the same price when prices are expr

The law of the British Virgin Islands is a combination of common law and statute, and is based heavily upon English law.

The Lerner index, formalized in 1934 by British economist of Russian origin Abba Lerner, is a measure of a firm's market power.

A limit price (or limit pricing) is a price, or pricing strategy, where products are sold by a supplier at a price low enough to make it unprofitable for other players to enter the market.

The list price, also known as the manufacturer's suggested retail price (MSRP), or the recommended retail price (RRP), or the suggested retail price (SRP) of a product is the price at which its manufacturer notionally recommends that a retailer sell the product. Minimum advertised price, or MAP, refers to the lowest price a retailer is allowed to advertise a product for sale, based on po

The London Metal Exchange (LME) is a futures and forwards exchange in London, United Kingdom with the world's largest market in standardised forward contracts, futures contracts and options on base metals. The exchange also offers contracts on ferrous metals and precious metals. The company also allows for cash trading. It offers hedging, worldwide reference pricing, and the option of ph

The London Platinum and Palladium Market (LPPM) is an over-the-counter trading centre for platinum and palladium and a commodity trading association. London has always been a centre for the research in and development of most of the platinum group metals. Trade was established in the early 20th century, typically by existing dealers of gold and silver. The LPPM has been involved in fixin

The Long-Term Stock Exchange (LTSE) is a U.S.-based national securities exchange headquartered in New York City. It was created with the intent to create long-term corporate governance and investment practices. Companies listing on LTSE are required to adopt governance standards that emphasize long-term business performance and stakeholder commitments. The exchange has received financial

A loss leader (also leader) is a product sold at a price below its minimum profit margin to stimulate other sales of more profitable goods or services. The use of a loss leader is a pricing strategy, a sales promotion strategy, and a marketing strategy. The loss leader is offered at a price below its minimum profit margin, not necessarily below cost.

Mandatory labelling or labeling (see spelling differences) is the requirement of consumer products to state their ingredients or components. This is done to protect people with allergies, and so that people can practice moral purchasing. Mandatory labelling is mandated in most developed nations and increasingly also in developing nations, especially for food products, e.g. "Grade A" meat

In neoclassical economics, a market distortion is any event in which a market reaches a market clearing price for an item that is substantially different from the price that a market would achieve while operating under conditions of perfect competition and state enforcement of legal contracts and the ownership of private property. In other words, a distortion is "any departure from the i

Market environment and business environment are marketing terms that refer to factors and forces that affect a firm's ability to build and maintain successful customer relationships. The business environment has been defined as "the totality of physical and social factors that are taken directly into consideration in the decision-making behaviour of individuals in the organisation."

Market research is an organized effort to gather information about target markets and customers. It involves understanding who they are and what they need. It is an important component of business strategy and a major factor in maintaining competitiveness. Market research helps identify and analyze market needs, market size and the competition. Its techniques encompass both qualitative

Marketing strategy refers to the set of coordinated actions undertaken by an organization to increase sales, strengthen market presence, and achieve sustainable competitive advantage. It provides a structured and deliberate approach to promoting products or services by aligning organizational resources, market insights, and long-term objectives through systematic planning and analysis.

Markup (or price spread) is the difference between the selling price of a good or service and its marginal cost. In economics, markups are the most direct way to measure market power: the extent to which a firm can influence the price at which it sells a product or service. A markup rule is the pricing practice of a producer with market power, where a firm charges a fixed mark-up over it

Mass marketing is a marketing strategy in which a firm decides to ignore market segment differences and appeal to the whole market with one offer or one strategy, which supports the idea of broadcasting a message that will reach the largest number of people possible. Traditionally, mass marketing has focused on radio, television and newspapers as the media used to reach this broad audien

In economics, a menu cost is the cost incurred by a firm when changing its prices. The concept is one microeconomic explanation for the stickiness of prices in the macroeconomy, particularly emphasized by New Keynesian economists.

Mergers and acquisitions in United Kingdom law refers to a body of law that covers companies, labour, and competition, which is engaged when firms restructure their affairs in the course of business.

The Microsoft Excel Collegiate Challenge (MECC) is a Microsoft Excel esports competition.

The Ministry of Finance is a cabinet-level ministry of the government of Pakistan that is in charge of government finance, fiscal policy, and financial regulation. A Finance Minister, an executive or cabinet position heads it.

China is one of the world's leaders in the adoption of mobile payments. Widespread adoption of mobile payments in China has facilitated the growth of e-commerce in China and growth in the retail banking sector.

In microeconomics, a monopoly price is set by a monopoly. A monopoly occurs when a firm lacks any viable competition and is the sole producer of the industry's product. Because a monopoly faces no competition, it has absolute market power and can set a price above the firm's marginal cost.

Monopoly profit is an inflated level of profit due to the monopolistic practices of an enterprise.

Mystery shopping is a market research method in which a researcher poses as a customer, prospect or user to observe and report on the quality of a sales, service, compliance or customer-experience process, or on job performance. It may be used to assess a company’s own operations, competitors’ operations, or market practices more broadly. The Market Research Society adds that mystery sho

National Audit Office of Finland (abbreviated NAOF, Finnish: Valtiontalouden tarkastusvirasto (VTV); Swedish: Statens revisionsverk oversees the management of public finances in Finland and monitors fiscal policies and oversees election campaign and party funding. It operates as the supreme external auditor in connection with the Parliament. Independent audit work ensures that state fund

The National Competitiveness Report of Armenia (ACR) is an annual publication of EV Consulting and the Economy and Values Research Center (a partner institute of the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Network) that aims to encourage and foster in-depth dialogue and analysis on improving Armenia's competitiveness.

The Central Directorate of National Savings is a Pakistani state-owned savings bank, operating as an attached department under the Finance Division, Ministry of Finance led by the Director General. It is based in Melody Market, Islamabad.

National Savings and Investments (NS&I), formerly called the Post Office Savings Bank and National Savings, is a state-owned savings bank in the United Kingdom, based in London, England.

NEC Software Solutions UK is a United Kingdom–based software and technology services provider, founded in 1969.

The Net Book Agreement (NBA) was a fixed book price agreement in the United Kingdom and Ireland between The Publishers Association and booksellers which set the prices at which books were to be sold to the public. The agreement was concerned solely with price maintenance. It operated in the UK from 1900 until the 1990s when it was abandoned by some large bookshop chains and was then rule

The New Payments Platform (NPP), owned and operated by New Payments Platform Australia Ltd (NPPA) is a national industry-wide real-time payments platform for Australia. As of April 2025, there are over 25 million registered PayIDs.

Non-price competition is a marketing strategy "in which one firm tries to distinguish its product or service from competing products on the basis of attributes like design and workmanship". It often occurs in imperfectly competitive markets because it exists between two or more producers that sell goods and services at the same prices but compete to increase their respective market share

The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises on Responsible Business Conduct are recommendations on responsible business conduct addressed by governments to multinational enterprises operating in or from the 52 adhering countries. The Guidelines provide non-binding principles and standards for responsible business conduct in a global context that are consistent with applicable laws

The official cash rate (OCR) is the term used in Australia and New Zealand for the bank rate and is the rate of interest which the central bank charges on overnight loans between commercial banks. This allows the Reserve Bank of Australia and the Reserve Bank of New Zealand to adjust the interest rates that apply in each country's economy. The OCR cannot be changed by transactions betwee

In financial services, open banking allows for financial data to be shared between banks and third-party service providers through the use of application programming interfaces (APIs). Traditionally, banks have kept customer financial data within their own closed systems. Open banking allows customers to share their financial information securely and electronically with other banks or ot

Opencard was a municipal contactless smart card system used in Prague, Czech Republic, between 2007 and 2020. It entered public use in April 2007, initially for paid parking; and later began to serve as a library card at the Municipal Library of Prague. In 2008, it was expanded to carry electronic season tickets for Prague Integrated Transport.

The organic composition of capital (OCC) is a concept developed by Karl Marx in his theory of capital, which was simultaneously his critique of political economy. It is derived from his more basic concepts of 'value composition of capital' and 'technical composition of capital'. Marx defines the organic composition of capital as "the value-composition of capital, in so far as it is deter

The Osborne effect is a social phenomenon of customers canceling or deferring orders for the current, soon-to-be-obsolete product as an unexpected drawback of a company's announcing a future product prematurely. It is an example of cannibalization. The term alludes to the Osborne Computer Corporation, whose second product did not become available until more than a year after it was annou

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to industrial organization:

Pakistan Crypto Council (PCC) is a Pakistani regulatory body established to develop policy, infrastructure and regulation for blockchain technology and digital assets within Pakistan. It operates under the Ministry of Finance with input from the State Bank of Pakistan (SBP), Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan (SECP), and other federal agencies.

Pay-per-click (PPC) is an online advertising model in which advertisers pay a publisher—typically a search engine or website—each time a user clicks on an advertisement.

Payday loans in the United Kingdom are typically small value (up to £1,500) and for short periods. Payday loans are often used as a term by members of the public (and commentators) generically to refer to all forms of high-cost short-term credit (HCSTC) including instalment loans, e.g. 3–9 month products, rather than just loans provided until the next pay day.

Pension regulation is a legal term encompassing, the set of laws, rules and authoritative standards governing the pension industry, and the procedures needed to enforce them.

In economics, specifically general equilibrium theory, a perfect market, also known as an atomistic market, is defined by several idealizing conditions, collectively called perfect competition, or atomistic competition. In theoretical models where conditions of perfect competition hold, it has been demonstrated that a market will reach an equilibrium in which the quantity supplied for ev

PharmEasy is an Indian e-pharmacy company that sells medicines, diagnostics and telehealth online.

In economics and industrial design, planned obsolescence (also called built-in obsolescence or premature obsolescence) is the concept of policies planning or designing a product with an artificially limited useful life or a purposely frail design, so that it becomes obsolete after a certain predetermined period of time upon which it decrementally functions or suddenly ceases to function,

The Poseidon bubble was a stock market bubble in which the price of Australian mining shares soared in late 1969, then crashed in early 1970. It was triggered by the discovery by Poseidon NL of the early indications of a promising nickel deposit in September 1969.

A price in economics is the amount of money that buyers are willing and able to pay for a particular good or service, and that sellers are willing to accept. In some situations, especially when the product is a service rather than a physical good, the price for the service may be called something else such as "rent" or "tuition". Prices are influenced by production costs, supply of the d

A price ceiling or price cap is a government- or group-imposed price control, or limit, on how high a price is charged for a product, commodity, or service. Governments impose price ceilings to protect consumers from conditions that could make commodities prohibitively expensive. Economists generally agree that consumer price controls do not accomplish what they intend to in market econo

Price controls are restrictions set in place and enforced by governments, on the prices that can be charged for goods and services in a market. The intent behind implementing such controls can stem from the desire to maintain affordability of goods even during shortages, and to slow inflation, or alternatively to ensure a minimum income for providers of certain goods or to try to achieve

Price discrimination, known also by several other names, is a microeconomic pricing strategy whereby identical or largely similar goods or services are sold at different prices by the same provider to different buyers, based on which market segment they are perceived to be part of. Price discrimination is distinguished from product differentiation by the difference in production cost for

A good's price elasticity of demand (

Price gouging is a pejorative term for the practice of increasing the prices of goods, services, or commodities to a level much higher than is considered reasonable or fair by some. This commonly applies to price increases of basic necessities after natural disasters. Usually, this event occurs after a demand or supply shock. The term can also be used to refer to profits obtained by prac

A price signal is information conveyed to consumers and producers, via the prices offered or requested for, and the amount requested or offered of a product or service, which provides a signal to increase or decrease quantity supplied or quantity demanded. It also provides potential business opportunities. When a certain kind of product is in shortage supply and the price rises, people w

In economics, a price system is a system through which the valuations of any forms of property (tangible or intangible) are determined. All societies use price systems in the allocation and exchange of resources as a consequence of scarcity. Even in a barter system with no money, price systems are still utilized in the determination of exchange ratios (relative valuations) between the pr

A price war is a form of market competition in which companies within an industry engage in aggressive pricing activity "characterized by the repeated cutting of prices below those of competitors". This leads to a cycle, where each competitor attempts to match or undercut the price of the other. Competitors are driven to follow the initial price-cut due to the downward pricing pressure,

Pricing is the process whereby a business sets and displays the price at which it will sell its products and services and may be part of the business's marketing plan. In setting prices, the business will take into account the price at which it could acquire the goods, the manufacturing cost, the marketplace, competition, market condition, brand, and quality of the product.

A business can choose from a variety of pricing strategies when selling a product or service. To determine the most effective pricing strategy for a company, senior executives need to first identify the company's pricing position, pricing segment, pricing capability and their competitive pricing reaction strategy. Pricing strategies, tactics and roles vary from company to company, and al

A private electronic market (PEM) uses the Internet to connect a limited number or pre-qualified buyers or sellers in one market. PEMs are a hybrid between perfectly open markets (e.g. exchanges where there is no pre-existing relationship between buyer and seller - similar to eBay) and closed contract negotiations (such as a sealed bid tender, where there is no visibility between competi

In marketing, product bundling is offering several products or services for sale as one combined product or service package. It is a common feature in many imperfectly competitive product and service markets. Industries engaged in the practice include telecommunications services, financial services, health care, information, and consumer electronics. A software bundle might include a wor

In economics, strategic management and marketing, product differentiation (or simply "differentiation") is the process of distinguishing a product or service from others to make it more attractive to a particular target market. This involves differentiating it from competitors' products as well as from a firm's other products. The concept was proposed by Edward Chamberlin in his 1933 boo

Product planning (or product discovery) is the ongoing process of identifying and articulating market requirements that define a product's feature set. It serves as the basis for decision-making about price, distribution and promotion. Product planning is also the means by which companies and businesses can respond to long-term challenges within the business environment, often achieved b

Product strategy defines the high-level plan for developing and marketing a product, how the product supports the business strategy and goals, and is brought to life through product roadmaps. A product strategy describes a vision of the future with this product, the ideal customer profile and market to serve, go-to-market and positioning (marketing), thematic areas of investment, and mea

Profit margin is a financial ratio that measures the percentage of profit earned by a company in relation to its revenue. Expressed as a percentage, it indicates how much profit the company makes for every dollar of revenue generated. Profit margin is important because this percentage provides a comprehensive picture of the operating efficiency of a business or an industry. All margin ch

In economics, profit maximization is the short run or long run process by which a firm may determine the price, input and output levels that will lead to the highest possible total profit (or just profit in short). In neoclassical economics, which is currently the mainstream approach to microeconomics, the firm is assumed to be a "rational agent" (whether operating in a perfectly competi

Provisional liquidation is a process which exists as part of the corporate insolvency laws of a number of common law jurisdictions whereby after the lodging of a petition for the winding-up of a company by the court, but before the court hears and determines the petition, the court may appoint a liquidator on a "provisional" basis. (The provisional liquidator is appointed to safeguard t

The Prudential Regulation Authority (PRA) is a United Kingdom financial services regulatory body, formed as one of the successors to the Financial Services Authority (FSA). The authority is responsible for the prudential regulation and supervision of banks, building societies, credit unions, insurers and major investment firms. It sets standards and supervises financial institutions at t

Public sector marketing is about managing the relationships between government organizations, the public sector, and other parties that are seeking services from them.

In cryptography, puzzle friendliness is a property of some cryptographic hash functions. SHA-256 is a cryptographic hash function that is thought to have this property. Informally, a hash function is puzzle friendly if no solution exists which is better than just making random guesses, and the only way to find a solution is the brute force method. Although the property is very general, i

A pyramid scheme or pyramid scam is a fraudulent business model in which participants earn money primarily by recruiting new members rather than by selling products or services to end consumers or by generating genuine investment returns.

Quiz Holdings, LLC, doing business as Quiznos, is an American franchised fast-food restaurant based in Denver that specializes in offering toasted submarine sandwiches. It was founded in 1981 by Jimmy Lambatos and sold to Rick and Richard Schaden ten years later. It then grew to nearly 5,000 restaurants; by 2013, Quiznos was the second-largest submarine sandwich shop chain in North Ameri

Rebranding is a marketing strategy (often called relabeling) in which a new name, term, symbol, design, concept or combination thereof is created for an established brand with the intention of developing a new, differentiated identity in the minds of consumers, investors, competitors, and other stakeholders. Often, this involves radical changes to a brand's logo, name, legal names, image

Reference Re Securities Act [2011] 3 S.C.R. 837, 2011 SCC 66 is a landmark opinion of the Supreme Court of Canada to a reference question posed on the extent of the ability of the Parliament of Canada to use its trade and commerce power.

Regulatory capitalism suggests that the operation maintenance and development of the international political economy increasingly depends on administrative rules outside the legislatures and the courts. In other words, it tells us that capitalism is a regulatory institution – one that is being constituted, shaped, constrained and expanded as a historically woven patchwork of regulatory i

Regulatory competition, also called competitive governance or policy competition, is a phenomenon in law, economics and politics concerning the desire of lawmakers to compete with one another in the kinds of law offered in order to attract businesses or other actors to operate in their jurisdiction. Regulatory competition depends upon the ability of actors such as companies, workers or o

Reliance Communications Limited (RCOM) was an Indian mobile network provider headquartered in Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra that offered voice and 2G, 3G and 4G data services.